Product Durability: A Systematic Literature Review

1. Introduction

The Industrial Revolution reshaped production capacities and consumer preferences, shifting away from valuing scarcity and durable items towards mass production and enhanced availability. However, this shift was not smooth, as the long-lasting products that were initially appreciated and manufactured resulted in unstable economic stability due to lower purchase requirements. This economic instability gave rise to planned obsolescence, where products were made with a shorter lifespan, encouraging repeated consumption (London, 2014). Initially, the implementation of obsolescence focused on addressing physical longevity or the functional longevity of a product. As time has advanced, obsolescence has diversified into various areas, encompassing psychological, economic, and logistical dimensions. While obsolescence has contributed to economic activity, it has also created a transition in consumer behaviour, resulting in a throwaway culture that has increased waste and environmental load over time (Cooper, 2004). The heightened environmental risk prompted the industry to delve deeper into responsible production and consumption by re-thinking the notions of obsolescence and product durability. In the current landscape, the emphasis on creating long-lasting goods, coupled with the changing landscape of product obsolescence, poses a challenge for designers as they navigate the selection and execution of optimal strategies. This underscores the necessity of a thorough grasp of durability, its related principles, and their intricate relationships. A comprehensive examination of contemporary literature concerning product durability, encompassing its diverse facets such as types, methodologies, ramifications, and constraints, is imperative for informing designers and product design processes. Despite some articles delving into durability and product lifespan, they rarely address actionable strategies for designers. The current research endeavours to offer a more inclusive viewpoint on crafting enduring designs by synthesising literature that addresses the longevity of products comprehensively.

This investigation conducts a systematic literature review to delve into and comprehend the principles linked to durability in product design. The aim is to examine existing literature meticulously and unearth fresh insights, shedding light on the application, scope, and constraints within product design. Additionally, the study seeks to pinpoint overlooked facets of durability that bear relevance in the realm of product design.

2. Method

This study employed a two-step approach to carry out the literature review:

• i. Initially, data collection entailed conducting a literature search on product durability and strictly adhering to explicit criteria to identify pertinent works.
• ii. Subsequent data analysis involved scrutinising the selected research articles on durability within the realm of product design. This was achieved through keyword-based analysis and a critical examination of the concepts associated with durability in the context of product design.

2. 1. Data collection: Systematic search

The literature review began by narrowing down the scope of the knowledge domain, specifically honing in on the concept of durability, with a particular emphasis on tangible artefacts or products. An exploratory systematic search was conducted using two online databases: Google Scholar and Scopus. Scopus maintains stringent quality control and primarily focuses on peer-reviewed articles, allowing us to remove grey literature from Google Scholar's wide range of sources (Moed et al., 2016). The keywords used for the study were “product durability” and “design.” The study excluded grey literature due to its low quality. Past literature has adopted a similar approach to ensure source reliability (Mesa et al., 2022). The search and identification of the literature was confined to material science, business and management, social sciences, economics, arts, multidisciplinary, decision sciences, and psychology, as the literature included many articles from various fields like medical, construction, and engineering. Literature published in English about product durability or obsolescence in the context of product design up to March 2024 was considered.

The combined keyword search from both Google Scholar and Scopus databases yielded a total of 4,795 articles. By evaluating the relevance of titles concerning product durability and removing duplicates, the scope of the study was narrowed to 895 articles (see Figure 1). Further scrutiny of abstracts from various perspectives, including studies on physical durability, economic sustainability, and sustainable product development, helped identify 294 articles. Then, keywords associated with product durability, obsolescence, product longevity, or the circular economy helped identify 180 articles. Subsequently, after reading the full articles, 127 articles were selected for literature review. The eligibility criteria for selecting peer-reviewed articles for this study were to consider those that addressed the concepts of product durability, strategies related to product lifespan, or barriers to durability.

Figure 1

Flowchart of methodology opted in defining literature for systematic reviews

3. Results and Discussion

The methodology described facilitated a comprehensive literature review on product durability in product design. The earliest article from the selected list was identified in 1994. Figure 2 depicts that the literature available before the year 2000 on the domain centred around product durability in product design was quite limited.

Figure 2

Temporal Distribution of Research Publications by Year and Frequency

3. 1. Keyword-based analysis

Keyword-based analysis was conducted with VOSviewer, which generated keyword networks as illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4, facilitating the discovery of key terms (see Table 1), concepts, and trends outlined below. In Table 1, hierarchy of the keywords in each cluster was due to their centrality and connectivity in the keyword network, serving as key integrative nodes. Additionally, they might represent the cluster's defining theme, influencing their prominent placement.

Figure 3

Keyword-based analysis showing network formed through literature

Figure 4

Keywords from research mapped across years

Table 1

Keyword analysis of the identified literature

The data acquired from keyword analysis in VOS viewer is from the provided bibliographic data on sustainable design, product durability, and other associated concepts. The keywords, their interlinked concepts, and their relationship within the literature were extracted. The insights are provided below:

• a. Central themes and Interconnectedness: The highest occurrence and link strengths were noted for sustainability, product design, circular economy, design, product development, durability and obsolescence, suggesting that the fundamental concepts of durability in product design are associated with sustainable development and circular economy principles. Moreover, these keywords signify a pattern identified in the literature that involves incorporating sustainability across the entire lifecycle of a product. Product durability and design significantly impact the environment, recycling efforts, and overall ecological footprint. This emphasises the importance of evaluating and minimising the ecological impact through lifecycle assessment.
• b. Emerging trends: Emotional durability, emotionally durable design, product lifetime, and product longevity exhibited moderate frequencies but had substantial link strengths. These characteristics define emotionally durable design and related concepts as a growing research area within the context of product design.
• c. Gap areas: Extended producer responsibility and user experience display fewer links and instances, suggesting opportunities for future research into incentivising producers for product longevity and integrating user experience into sustainable design practices.
• d. Design consideration: Occurrences of product lifetime, user design method, and life cycle assessment (LCA) are limited, indicating a deficiency in practical application and methodologies for prolonging product lifetimes through design. This suggests more research into integrating various product life-extending strategies into the design process.

The map shown in Figure 3 illustrates five distinct clusters, each differentiated by a unique colour. Figure 4 shows how the data's trends changed overtime by presenting the average publication year of documents associated with each keyword.

Exploring product durability in sustainable product design is important to address obsolescence and environmental impact. The following sections depict dimensions and implications for design.

3. 3. Product Obsolescence:

Product obsolescence is the process by which a product becomes outdated or no longer helpful. A precise understanding of product obsolescence is essential to ensure a product's longevity (Yamamoto & Murakami, 2021). An extensive exploration has been conducted on product obsolescence, examining numerous pathways through which a product may become obsolete (Agrawal & Ülkü, 2013; Koenigsberg et al., 2011; Maitre‐Ekern & Dalhammar, 2016; Maulia & Halimatussadiah, 2018; Pardo-Vicente et al., 2022; Poppe et al., 2021; Schallmo et al., 2012; Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023; Valusyte, 2021; Yamamoto & Murakami, 2021).

Details of the same are summarised below (Cooper, 2004; Schallmo et al., 2012; Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023; Yamamoto & Murakami, 2021):

• a. Technological obsolescence : This obsolescence replaces older product versions with newer ones, promoting technological progress. Technological obsolescence makes the older versions depreciable, even if they are functional. This obsolescence is a combination of technical and compatibility-caused obsolescence. Technological obsolescence replaces the old one by making the user perceive the product as outdated. This is closely related to the psychological aspect (Haug, 2019; Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023).
• b. Functional obsolescence : Products become obsolete when they no longer meet performance requirements, cannot be upgraded, or lack necessary features and functionalities for the current usage context (Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023).
• c. Psychological obsolescence : The desirability of a product diminishes due to changing consumer preferences or design trends, regardless of its lifespan. This is caused by psychological, aesthetic, and stylistic obsolescence. The literature cites this obsolescence in addressing psychological and emotional durability (Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023).
• d. Economic obsolescence : This obsolescence is observed when maintaining or using an existing product becomes less economically viable than replacing it with a new one (Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023).
• e. Diminishing manufacturing sources and material shortages (DMSMS) : This obsolescence occurs when essential components, materials, or technologies become unavailable due to discontinuation or supply chain disruptions, affecting the product's maintainability and upgradeability (Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023).
• f. Planned obsolescence : This happens due to the production of parts with lowered life compared to what is technically possible. This obsolescence makes the products fail, compels product replacement, and increases repeat sales (Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023).
• g. Optional obsolescence : This obsolescence arises when product manufacturers continue producing products with outdated technology, leading to a natural decrease in demand as consumers choose more modern alternatives (Mellal, 2020).
• h. Ecological obsolescence : Products replaced due to their adverse impact on the environment beyond acceptable limits are termed ecological obsolescence (Schallmo et al., 2012).
• i. Social obsolescence : This form of obsolescence arises from a shift in societal perception of a product prompted by changes in social norms or values (Schallmo et al., 2012).
• j. Legal obsolescence : This obsolescence arises when products can no longer be used because they are deemed illegal or non-compliant with legislative requirements (Schallmo et al., 2012).

3. 3. 1. Categorising Obsolescence

Broadly, the ten obsolescence can be classified into four categories, which are as follows (shown in Figure 5):

Figure 5

Obsolescence categories

• a) User-centric obsolescence: This category is defined by its emphasis on the impact of shifts in consumer's perceptions and behaviours, including psychological and social obsolescence that impact and result in these changes.
• b) Manufacture obsolescence : This category explicitly addresses aspects of product production, design, and material composition. Manufacture obsolescence includes diminishing manufacturing sources and material shortages (DMSMS), and planned, technological, and functional obsolescence is categorised as manufacturing obsolescence.
• c) Environment-centric obsolescence : This category includes obsolescence that is driven by environmental and regulatory factors. Ecological and legal obsolescence are categorised as environment-centric obsolescence.
• d) Economy-centric obsolescence : This category encompasses financial variables that affect the product's viability and consumer interest to purchase or maintain it. Economic obsolescence is included in this classification.
• e) Optional obsolescence, which considers consumers' preferences and manufacturing choices, is classified into user-centric and manufacturing-centric categories.

Understanding the relationship between obsolescence and durability in contemporary contexts is crucial to recognise that durability strategies are primarily framed from the user's viewpoint, suggesting room for investigating durability concepts from the manufacturer's standpoint (Figure 6).

Figure 6

The interplay of durability and obsolescence

• a. Physical durability of a product guarantees its functional life and contributes to its robustness and longevity, directly impacting functional obsolescence (Becher & Sibony, 2021). Furthermore, physical durability indirectly affects economic obsolescence by reducing the expenses associated with product replacement and maintenance (Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023).
• b. Emotional durability directly confronts psychological obsolescence by strengthening the emotional connections between products and their users (Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023). Additionally, this indirectly alleviates the issue of planned obsolescence, as enduring user loyalty aids in prolonging the product's operational lifespan and reducing the frequency of replacements.
• c. By satisfying the psychological needs of users and fostering a lasting attachment to products, psychological durability directly combats psychological obsolescence (Haug, 2019; Sierra-Fontalvo et al., 2023). Additionally, it indirectly influences planned obsolescence by nurturing enduring emotional connections and diminishing the perceived necessity for frequent product replacements.
• d. Strategic durability ensures that products remain competitive, sustainable, and adaptable to changing demands and preferences in various dimensions of durability with strategic business goals. This durability defies functional, technological, and psychological obsolescence by creating adaptable, relevant, and appealing products. Abiding by long-lasting consumer and societal values indirectly influences economic, ecological, and social obsolescence (Haase, 2023).

The literature on circular design indicates that two approaches to addressing obsolescence exist: resistance and postponement. Resistance to obsolescence involves reinforcing physical and emotional durability while postponing obsolescence, which entails designing products capable of maintenance, upgrading, recontextualisation, repair, refurbishment, and remanufacturing.

3. 4. Strategies to achieve product longevity and sustainable product development

Approaches found within the durability literature linked to enhancing product longevity include:

• a) Resilient design : The design philosophy and approach prioritise creating products capable of adapting to environmental, usage, emotional, and psychological changes. This approach underscores the importance of designing for flexibility, adaptability, robustness, and ease of repair and maintenance. Such a strategy ensures that the product remains functional and valuable to users (Haug, 2018).
• b) Slow design : This strategy is regarded as a sector characterised by a deliberate pace. It aims to produce products that decelerate consumption and have extended lifespans. This is primarily achieved by crafting visually captivating and emotionally compelling products (Grosse-Hering et al., 2013).
• c) Timeless design : Timeless design entails crafting products that transcend trends and endure over time by blending aesthetic appeal with functionality (Lobos, 2014). Achieving timeless design involves considerations such as appearance, product efficiency, material selection, and user experience (Lobos, 2014). Flood Heaton and McDonagh (2017) emphasise timelessness through exceptional beauty, nostalgia, and simplicity. This design approach is often linked to classicism, anti-fashion, simplicity, and minimalism (Lobos, 2014; Zafarmand et al., 2003).
• d) Emotionally durable design : In pursuit of entirely sustainable products, Chapman (2009) has advocated for emotionally durable design, encompassing dimensions such as attachment, fiction, consciousness, narrative, detachment, and surface. Haines-Gadd (2018) delved further into the concept of emotional durability, aiming to comprehensively address psychological and emotional obsolescence within the context of product longevity. This new approach to emotionally durable design introduces nine themes to achieve emotional durability: narrative, integrity, identity, relationship, imagination, materiality, evolvability, consciousness, and conversation.
• e) Psychologically durable design : Haug (2019) introduced this concept, which outlines how specific products achieve durability by upholding their values. The study reported by Haug (2019) elucidates the distinctions between emotionally and psychologically durable designs, illustrating how certain products can achieve durability due to specific attributes in particular contexts. Psychologically durable design is characterised by qualities such as timelessness, exclusivity, personality, personalisation, and ageing gracefully. Psychologically durable design aims to psychologically uphold the product's value by preserving its instrumental, hedonic, and symbolic significance (Haug, 2019). This novel concept of durability expands the scope by suggesting that the product’s design elements can enhance appeal over time.
• f) Circular design : This strategy involves creating products by integrating principles of the circular economy into the design process to develop sustainable and environmentally friendly products. The strategy aims to reduce waste by encouraging product reuse, refurbishment, and recycling to extend product integrity and material integrity (Bocken et al., 2016; Joustra et al., 2021). The inertia principle introduced by Walter Stahel suggests not repairing a product when something is not broken, not remanufacturing when something can be repaired, and not recycling if something can be remanufactured (Den Hollander et al., 2017; Walter, 2016). Adhering to this order of applying principles informs which strategies to use.

Figure 7 depicts the interconnections between various sustainable design philosophies. Psychologically durable design is centred around emotionally durable design, which emphasises the development of strong emotional connections between users and products. This approach extends these connections to align with the evolving psychological values of users. Resilient design encompasses the idea of being adaptable to both environmental and usage changes. Resilient design is a subset of slow design that aims to reduce consumption by extending product lifespans. Timeless design distinguishes slow design, ensuring both aesthetic and functional durability. The circular design incorporates the principles of reuse and recycling, including slow design but excluding emotionally charged designs, focusing on material sustainability.

Figure 7

Design strategies that influence product lifespans'

Additionally, Table 2 illustrates how the identified strategies align with different product lifespans related to durability. This alignment describes strategy for designing products with specific lifespans. It emphasises obsolescence, which refers to product integrity that extends beyond a single lifespan via recovery strategies for functionality across multiple cycles. Product integrity combines durability and recovery to improve longevity via long life (inherent longevity, extended use, and reuse) and lifetime extension (repair, maintenance, and upgrading). Table 2 illustrates these strategies for increasing product longevity.

Table 2

Keyword analysis of the identified literature

Achieving Long-Life:

• a. Long inherent life: This concept centres on naturally enduring designs. Resilient design emphasises flexibility and robustness, ensuring products withstand changes and stresses, extending their useful life.
• b. Long use: This involves designing products to remain useful for an extended period before needing replacement. Strategies such as timeless, slow, emotionally durable, and psychologically durable designs support this by ensuring products stay relevant and desirable over time.
• c. Reuse: This pertains to a product's ability to extend its use beyond its initial lifecycle. Resilient, emotionally durable, and psychologically durable designs promote repeated use, making the products suitable for multiple use cycles.

Achieving life extension:

• a. Repair and maintenance: This involves strategies to ensure products can be easily repaired or maintained, thus extending their lifespan. Resilient, slow, and emotionally durable design strategies support this by emphasising ease of repair and robustness.
• b. Upgrade: This category focuses on adapting existing products to changing needs or technologies rather than replacing them. Strategies such as resilient, slow, emotionally durable, and psychologically durable designs support this approach by emphasising flexibility and enduring appeal.

3. 4. 1. Mapping obsolescence and various sustainable product development strategies

Sustainable design strategies are mapped with obsolescence to inform the ability of the strategy to mitigate different types of obsolescence, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8

The interplay of sustainable design strategies and obsolescence

• a) Timeless design : This strategy emphasises classic aesthetics, functionality, and high-quality material to create products that stay relevant even with changing trends and consumer preferences (Lobos, 2014). Timeless design directly influences and defies psychological obsolescence by keeping the product's aesthetic relevant to the user (Haug, 2019). Timeless design indirectly combats social obsolescence as classic designs remain socially acceptable over longer periods. This also indirectly impacts ecological sustainability by reducing the necessity for frequent product replacements.
• b) Slow design : This represents a holistic approach that contrasts with rapid consumption patterns. This design philosophy seeks to establish strong bonds between the user and the product, extending its lifespan and reducing the need for frequent replacements. Thus, this directly counters psychological obsolescence (Haines-Gadd, 2019). Slow design directly influences functional and technological obsolescence by promoting easy product maintenance and upgradeability (Park, 2005). Furthermore, slow design indirectly influences ecological and economic obsolescence by nurturing sustainable consumption and long-lasting products. This philosophy also indirectly confronts social obsolescence by cultivating a culture that values longevity and meaningful consumption.
• c) Circular design : This approach aims to reduce waste by considering the entire lifespan of a product by emphasising reuse, recycling, and upcycling (Suppipat & Hu, 2022). Therefore, this philosophy directly confronts technological obsolescence by allowing products to evolve or adapt to changing technological advancements. Moreover, the implementation of circular design encourages prolonging the useful lifespan of a product, thereby tackling the issue of economic obsolescence. This also plays a role in reducing purchase frequency, which is essential for mitigating ecological obsolescence. Furthermore, circular design indirectly promotes social sustainability by encouraging the cultivation and evolution of societal values towards sustainability.
• d) Emotionally durable design : This strategy aims to create products that establish a profound emotional bond with users, thus extending the product's lifespan. Emotionally durable design strategies directly tackle psychological obsolescence by fostering an emotional connection (Haines-Gadd, 2019). Promoting such emotional connection also encourages users to maintain and care for their products, thereby confronting functional obsolescence. Moreover, emotionally durable design indirectly counteracts social obsolescence by creating products that surpass societal trends in their cherished value.
• e) Psychologically durable design : This strategy focuses on meeting the user's psychological needs in order to prolong the product's relevance and value, effectively countering psychological obsolescence (Haug, 2019). Ensuring that products sufficiently fulfil needs over an extended period reduces the desire for replacement and indirectly promotes economic sustainability by prolonging the product's lifespan. Additionally, this design approach can indirectly address the problem of functional and social obsolescence by ensuring that the product continues to meet user demands and remains pertinent to evolving social standards. This approach highlights the importance of achieving psychological satisfaction to improve a product's durability and sustainability.
• f) Resilient design : This strategy focuses on creating products that can adapt and recover from various challenges, such as damage, wear, and technological advancements (Haug, 2018). It integrates adaptability, repairability, and upgradeability to address functional and technological obsolescence. Resilient design mitigates DMSMS obsolescence by ensuring products can function with alternative components or materials (Zolghadri et al., 2021). This reduces reliance on scarce resources and addresses immediate obsolescence issues. It also promotes social durability by keeping products relevant amid changing societal norms and technological advancements. Additionally, resilient design tackles psychological and ecological obsolescence by enhancing product durability and flexibility, thereby increasing user satisfaction and reducing waste.

Figure 6 depicts the various types of obsolescence and their direct and indirect relationship to the different product durability concepts, such as physical, emotional, psychological and strategic. Figure 7, on the other hand, shifts focus towards sustainability design strategies that are closely associated with product durability. It illustrates how timeless, slow, circular, emotionally durable, psychologically durable and resilient designs interact with various obsolescence types.

Further, upon analysis, Figures 6 and 8 reveal that durability strategies are primarily defined from the user's perspective. This observation suggests an opportunity to explore durability concepts from the perspectives of manufacturers, environmental and economic considerations, particularly regarding the choices made by designers.

4. Identifying unstudied phenomenon in durability

The literature on emotionally and psychologically durable design explains a process that aims to prolong a product's utility, maintain the relevance of its features and forms, and foster user attachment. For instance, the Mini Cooper incorporates several design features that endure over time, attributed to its timeless brand DNA (Laursen & Barros, 2022). However, some design decisions, such as the design of car interior space, are not only influenced by emotional or psychological durability but also by regulatory requirements. This indicates that regulations on manufacturers influence the design choices while designing a product. Current literature on product durability largely overlooks these decisions made by designers. Additionally, existing literature on durability does not explore why specific features persist across time within a product category and endure longer. For example, the prevalence of flip-top caps on shampoo bottles raises questions about whether this feature persists due to cost considerations or the familiarity and simplicity of its functionality. This lack of clarity regarding continuity suggests that while existing concepts may explain why certain functions or features endure, they do not fully define the uncertain continuity of features. We define this ability of the features to continue existing across products, their iterations, and multiple product lives as design-durability. This new aspect is not entirely addressed by durability and other sustainable design strategies, which are predominantly framed from the user's perspective. Therefore, it is a new area of inquiry that requires exploration from the designers' perspective rather than solely from the users. Figure 10 informs how the perspective of designers differs from that of users.

Product durability and design-durability are fundamentally different, as the former defines the long life of a single product, and design-durability defines the market endurance of a design or feature. An example of how design-durability varies across various product types and models of Gillette-manufactured products is shown in Figure 9. Though Gillette's five-blade model was introduced as a feature to increase the multi-directional adjustability of the blades according to facial contour, the three-blade model continued to be used and is available in the market. This implies that the three-blade model is still acceptable in many ways. This suggests that design-durability is not limited to the overall product concept but also to its features that appear to be durable across product models (Gillete Mach3 model safety razor) and product types (Cartridge type safety razor).

Figure 9

Product and design durability of a product

Figure 10

Designer and user perspective on durability

Few other examples that depict the concept of design-durability are as follows:

• a) Smartphone Charging Ports : The shift from micro-USB to USB-C across various digital products demonstrates design-durability through technical advancements and widespread adoption, enhancing interoperability and user experience.
• b) Automotive Dashboards : Speedometer placement across various dashboard layouts, despite evolving digital technology, highlights design-durability in maintaining usability across vehicle generations.
• c) Keyboard Layout : The continued use of QWERTY layout across devices from typewriters to digital screens showcases design-durability by facilitating ease of learning and transition.
• d) E-book Readers : The use of traditional book-like forms in e-book readers showcases design-durability through its focus on readability and comfort.
• e) Bicycle Frame Geometry : The consistent geometry of bicycle frames, regardless of new materials or techniques, demonstrates design-durability in terms of performance and comfort.
• f) Watch Crown Mechanism : The continued use of the crown mechanism for tactile interaction in watches, despite the digital era, highlights design-durability for utility and aesthetic connection.
• g) Flight Control Stick : Enduring design and functionality of flight control sticks in aircraft, preserving intuitive control, demonstrates design durability.
• h) Screw Threads and Fasteners : Standard designs facilitating compatibility and repairability across applications underscore design-durability in assembly.
• i) Pencil Design : The enduring design of the wood-cased graphite pencil, despite new writing technologies, reflects design durability in form, function, and usage.
• j) Manhole Covers : The simple, effective round design that prevents accidental fall-through in urban infrastructure exemplifies functional design-durability.

4. 1. Design-durability conceptual placement

Designs crafted with principles of design durability inherently prioritise sustainability from a multi-faceted standpoint. The distinction in philosophy is outlined in Table 3 and Table 4 below.

Table 3

Comparative overview of design-durability and related concepts in the literature

Table 4

Comparative analysis of design-durability and related concepts across various forms of longevity

Design-durability emphasises the long-lasting nature of design features, and circular design adopts a holistic approach to sustainability, which are complementary strategies. Collectively, they address diverse sustainability aspects and mitigate environmental harm. By incorporating these principles, it is possible to generate groundbreaking solutions that align with consumers' expectations and ecological sustainability goals.

Based on the concepts defined in Table 3, Table 4 attempts to map different durability concepts similar or overlapping to design-durability, illustrating their contribution to longevity based on materialisation, features, style, product model, and product instance. These attributes have been observed as key factors in achieving various forms of longevity. Materialisation addresses the physical interactions a product undergoes; features concern with specific characteristics or functions incorporated in a product; style concerns the aesthetic and visual aspects of the product design; product model refers to the variant of a product that is positioned in the market from a product type; and product Instance refers to the product owned by the consumer:

• a. Long-product life refers to the physical survival of the product over an extended period. Based on the concepts defined in Table 3, physical durability, emotional durability, strategic durability and resilient design contribute to this longevity based on materialisation, which concerns the product's physical interactions of the product and is associated with a single product instance.
• b. Long-product use involves consumers extending a product's usage beyond its typical lifecycle in various ways. Emotional durability increases a product's usage lifespan by fostering emotional bonds with the user. This concept focuses on individual product instances to achieve long-term product usage. Psychological durability ensures continued relevance with the user by incorporating famous product features and styles. Timeless design also contributes to prolonged product use in product models by providing features and styles that can withstand changing trends. Timeless design helps make a design more relevant and valuable to the user. Slow design extends the usage span of a product through materialisation, which allows the product to withstand aggression by keeping itself relevant to the user psychologically and forming an emotional bond by providing timeless features and styles. Resilient design extends the product usage span by providing it with the ability to withstand and recover from physical, environmental, and social stresses. This notion deals with increasing product life and usage life through various ways.
• c. Market endurance refers to making the design lasting in the market across various timelines. Design-durability contributes to market endurance by offering adaptive features and styles applicable to multiple products. It specifically deals on the level of product models instead of instances. In contrast, timeless design helps a product model achieve an enduring presence in the market by providing features and styles that can transcend the trends and remain valuable. Product DNA facilitates the creation of product features and styles that are representative of the brand's identity and continue to exist in the market. Product DNA aims not to develop a specific model but to cultivate enduring brand characteristics. Meanwhile, design continuity ensures consistency in design elements and branding across related products of a manufacturer or a product line.

5. Conclusion

The comprehensive literature review on product durability explores the intricate relationship between durability and various elements of the product lifecycle. The review categorises durability into four categories - physical, psychological, emotional, and strategic, and maps their interplay with various forms of obsolescence. The analysis revealed intricate relationships between these durability types and product life cycles, highlighting how they counteract different obsolescence mechanisms.

The study advocates for a multi-faceted approach to product design and consumption, promoting the adoption of resilient, slow, timeless, emotionally, and psychologically durable design principles. These strategies aim to extend products' physical and emotional lifespans and address broader sustainability challenges by promoting circular economy practices. Such approaches encourage the reuse and optimisation of product utility, thereby reducing environmental impacts and fostering sustainable consumption patterns.

Moreover, the literature review on product durability helped define the gap that exists in the literature and introduced the concept of design-durability, emphasising the need for designers to prioritise the long-term viability of design elements across multiple product iterations, thus promoting sustainable production and consumption patterns.

The study presents a literature review to comprehensively understand product durability, particularly focusing on obsolescence and sustainable product design strategies. While performing keyword-based analysis, the threshold might have effectively optimised the results by reducing noise; it may have also excluded some potentially interesting findings. The study predominantly utilises qualitative analysis of literature to gain insights into the longevity and obsolescence of products. The study's limitations hinder the quantitative validation of the proposed strategies' effectiveness in prolonging product lifespans and reducing obsolescence. In order to improve research in this domain, it would be beneficial to carry out empirical studies and quantitative assessments to confirm and improve these strategies.

The study introduces the novel concept of design-durability and provides preliminary insights into this new phenomenon. Although the concept has been outlined, it is still in its preliminary phase. A comprehensive exploration and investigation are required to comprehend ways of achieving design-durability and its implications and to optimise its integration into product design and development processes. By aligning these durability strategies with sustainable and circular economic models, companies can enhance product longevity, improve market competitiveness, and ensure compliance with environmental standards, thus contributing to a more sustainable future.

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