Multisensory Congruence in Brand Identity: Evidence from the Global Automotive Market

1. Introduction

Ever had the experience of meeting somebody for the first time and were surprised to find that they look exactly how you imagined them purely from their name? Studies have reported that people feel more drawn toward those whose name and face match (e.g., Barton & Halberstadt, 2018). Information perceived to be in line with existing beliefs, expectations, or hypothesis yields processing fluency, which in turn generates more positive attitude compared to information that contradicts prior knowledge. This study was driven by the curiosity of whether brands can also enjoy the advantage of such name-face matching effect. That is, what happens when the name of a brand and its visual face match? Does it lead to better brand performance?

In light of the competitive landscape of businesses becoming fiercer with new brands flooding in every day, companies are faced with the challenge to manage their brands ever more meticulously and strategically to cope with the dynamics of the market. The challenge calls for a multifaceted tactical approach that integrates aspects of branding that have been treated either disparately or merely intuitively. Among these aspects that particularly and significantly contribute to a brand’s first impression are its name (the brand’s auditory image) and its logotype (the brand’s visual image). This study investigates brand name linguistics and the visual characteristics of logotypes amongst globally leading companies in search for a distinctive pattern that may well be one factor contributing to their corporate success.

2. Literature review

3. Method

3. 2. Analysis framework

3. 2. 1. Auditory measures

To analyze the phonemes of the brand names, the names are first converted into international phonetic alphabets (IPA) according to the notation standards devised by the International Phonetic Association. This alphabetic system was formulated in the 19th century as a standardized representation of the sounds of verbal language based primarily on the Latin alphabet. The International Phonetic Association categorizes the phonetic alphabets into various classifications. Among these, the classifications adopted for analysis in the current study are front versus back for vowels (see Figure 1) and fricative versus plosive for consonants (see Figure 2). Front vowels are defined by having the highest point of the tongue positioned relatively in front of the mouth such as /i/ in eat, /ɛ/ in bed, and /æ/ in hat. On the contrary, back vowels are defined by having the highest point of the tongue positioned relatively back in the mouth such as /u/ in food, /ʌ/ in mud, and /ɒ/ in hot. Central vowels are neutral with respect to the image they connote and thus are not included in the phonetic analysis of the study. Among consonants, fricatives are characterized by the audible friction produced by squeezing air through the passage in the vocal tract such as /f/ in feel, /s/ in see, and /ʃ/ in show. On the contrary, plosives are characterized by sounds that are produced by completely stopping airflow such as /p/ in pad, /t/ in tin, and /k/ in cat. As mentioned, front vowels and fricative consonants deliver a smaller quality relative to back vowels and plosive consonants that deliver a larger quality. For each subject group—compact cars and SUVs—the frequencies of “smaller-sounding” phonemes (front vowels and fricative consonants) and “larger-sounding” phonemes (back vowels and plosive consonants) are compared. Further, the number of syllables and the number of phonemes are compared between the subject groups as they also belong to the auditory image of the brand names—that is, how short or long are the sound of these names.

Figure 1

Vowel phonemesSource: International Phonetic Association

Figure 2

Consonant phonemesSource: International Phonetic Association

An example of auditory image analysis is provided in Table 1. For Nissan’s Pathfinder, its IPA notation is “pæθ faɪn dər,” which includes three syllables and ten individual phonemes. The brand name contains three front vowels—ɪ, æ, and a—and no back vowels. For consonants, the name contains two fricative consonants—f and θ—and two plosive consonants—p and d.

Table 1

Example of auditory analysis

3. 2. 2. Visual measures

To visually analyze the brand logotypes, seven measures were used—font type, letter case, font orientation, the number of letters, average font weight, average font width, and total width. These measures have been selected because they specifically associate with the typographic image of the typeface in which the logotypes are written. Font type was determined to be either sans serif, serif, or script. Letter case was determined to be either uppercase, title case, or lowercase. Orientation was determined to be either roman (upright) or oblique (slanted). The number of letters is included as a visual measure as opposed to the numbers of syllables or phonemes since the latter two determine the length and variety of the sound whereas the former affects the visual length of the logotype.

Regarding font weight, several methods exist, although most are unsuitable for the purpose of the study. The font-weight numerical scale of 100 to 1000 is rather ordinal and generally not proportional. The font-weight names such as Thin or Bold is also unsuitable because such ordering too is ordinal and is commonly designated by the type designer. Font weight can also be numerically measured by ink area, that is, the percentage of black pixels a letter takes up within its frame. This method too is not well-suited in analyzing logotypes as weights cannot be compared across different letters. A font-weight estimation method that type designers usually prefer is to divide the x-height or the cap height by the thickness of its vertical stem (Bigelow, 2019). For instance, the x-height/stem ratio of Times Roman is 5.5, meaning that the x-height is 5.5 times the average thickness of the vertical stems. As such, a lower measurement of weight implies a heavier font and a higher measurement of weight implies a lighter font. For each study subject, the width was calculated by dividing the cap height (in case the logotype is in uppercase) or the x-height (in case the logotype is in title or lowercase) by the average thickness of the vertical stems.

Regarding font width, all observed logotypes were in a variable-width font. That is, different letters have different widths such that the width of a structurally narrower letter like ‘i’ is much less than a structurally wider letter like ‘m’. This width includes side bearings of inter-letter spacings. For each study subject, the width of each logotype was computed by dividing the total width of the logotype by the number of letters to deduce an estimated average width of the typeface that takes into account the letter case, letter frequencies, and space characters.

An example of visual analysis is provided in Table 2, supplemented with Figure 3. For Nissan’s Pathfinder, the type of the font used in the logotype is sans serif, written in all uppercase in an upright roman orientation and containing ten letters. To determine the weight and width, all logotypes were first set to an equal cap height (x-height in case of title or lowercase). The average thickness of the vertical stems included in the logotype of Pathfinder was found to be about 0.2541 in relation to the cap height being unity. Dividing 1 by 0.2541 yields 3.94. That is, the height of the logotype is roughly 3.94 times the average thickness of its vertical stems. As for font width, the total width of the entire logotype was found to be approximately 11.43 in relation to the cap height being unity. Since the logotype contains ten letters, then it can be deduced that the average width of a letter is about 1.14. That is, the ratio of the cap height to the average width of the typeface is roughly 1:1.14, as depicted by the dotted frame around the letter ‘F’ in Figure 3.

Table 2

Example of visual analysis

Figure 3

Example of average weight and average width measurements

4. Result

4. 1. Auditory analysis result

Both the number of syllables and the number of phonemes were found to be greater for SUVs than for compact cars (see Figure 4). T-tests revealed that there are statistically significant differences in the number of syllables (t = -3.305, df = 55.151, p < .01) and the number of phonemes (t = -3.837, df = 55.753, p < .01) depending on vehicle type (see Table 3). Comparing the mean differences, the number of syllables was shorter for compact cars (M = 1.92) than for SUVs (M = 2.56), and the number of phonemes was also shorter for compact cars (M = 5.13) than for SUVs (M = 7.09). That is, the acoustic length of the brand names of compact cars is significantly shorter than the acoustic length of the brand names of SUVs.

Figure 4

Comparisons of the numbers of syllables and phonemes

Table 3

Independent samples t-tests on auditory measures

To analyze the relevant frequencies of the type of phonemes observed from the brand names, the data was first converted to represent the percentages in terms of the smaller-larger image they convey. That is, the percentage of “smaller-sounding” phonemes (front vowels and fricative consonants) and the percentage of “larger-sounding” phonemes (back vowels and plosive consonants) were computed in terms of the total image-conveying phonemes (the sum of front and back vowels and fricative and plosive consonants). For instance, in Nissan’s Pathfinder, the number of “smaller” phonemes and the number of “larger” phonemes are five and two, respectively, out of the seven image-conveying phonemes. That is, the percentages of “smaller” phonemes and of “larger” phonemes are 71% and 29%, respectively. Such percentages are analyzed instead of absolute frequencies because absolute frequencies are influenced by the length of the brand name such that longer names obviously contain more phonemes than shorter names.

The brand names of compact cars were found to contain more “smaller” phonemes than did the brand names of SUVs and the brand names of SUVs were found to contain more “larger” phonemes than did the brand names of compact cars (see Figure 5). T-tests revealed that there are statistically significant differences in the percentage of “smaller” phonemes (t = 2.176, df = 56, p < .05) and the percentage of “larger” phonemes (t = -2.176, df = 56, p < .05) depending on vehicle type (see Table 3). Comparing the mean differences, the percentage of “smaller” phonemes is greater in compact car brand names (M = 62%) than in SUV brand names (M = 47%) and, complementarily, the percentage of “larger” phonemes is greater in SUV brand names (M = 53%) than in compact car brand names (M = 38%). That is, in line with previous research findings, those phonemes (both vowels and consonants) that deliver the relative image of being smaller are more frequently observed from the brand names of compact cars than from the brand names of SUVs. Likewise, those phonemes (both vowels and consonants) that deliver the relative image of being larger are more frequently observed from the brand names of SUVs than from the brand names of compact cars.

Figure 5

Comparisons of the percentages of “smaller” and “larger” phonemes

4. 2. Visual analysis result

Regarding font type, a chi-square test revealed that there is no statistically significant difference in the font type of logotypes by vehicle type (Χ² = .573, df = 2, p > .1; see Table 4). However, it is natural that the vast majority of logotypes for both compact cars and SUVs are in sans serif fonts (see Figure 6) as they are more recognizable, readable, and give a cleaner, modern, and more technical feel than do serif fonts (e.g., Bigelow, 2019; Morris, Aquilante, Yager, & Bigelow, 2002; Qiu et al., 2017; Roethlein, 1912; Tantillo et al., 1995). Thus, sans serif fonts are more suitable for logotypes, especially in the automotive sector. Regarding the limited use of script fonts for brand logotypes, although the difference in percentages between that of compact cars and that of SUVs is minimal, their stylization differs. Compact car logotypes in script fonts were found to have a much more organic, free flowing, almost hand-drawn feel whereas SUV logotypes in script fonts were found to have a rather regular, cursive-like stroke style.

Table 4

Crosstabulations between vehicle type and font characteristics

Figure 6

Comparison of font type

Regarding letter case, a chi-square test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the type of letter case in logotypes depending on vehicle type (Χ² = 6.104, df = 2, p < .05; see Table 4). Most logotypes were found to be in all uppercase for both vehicle types (79% of compact cars and 94% of SUVs). A small percentage of both compact cars and SUVs were using logotypes in title case. A clear distinction, however, was found in the percentage of lowercase logotypes. While 17% of the logotypes of compact cars were written in all lowercase, none were found among the logotypes of SUVs (see Figure 7). Lowercase logotypes have been shown to increase perceptions of brand friendliness whereas uppercase logotypes increase perceptions of potency and brand authority (e.g., Tannenbaum et al., 1964; Xu et al., 2017). Moreover, the key visual feature of lowercase letters compared to capitals is that they accompany ascender and descender lines that protrude beyond the x-height and the baseline. Research asserts that longer ascenders and descenders add a more youthful and friendlier atmosphere to the typeface (Sassoon, 1993). Then it can be inferred that the mere existence of ascenders and descenders delivers such a youthful tone as opposed to all caps. Such image is in line with the target audience of compact cars. A 2000 nationwide poll involving 9,411 respondents conducted by Maeil Business Newspaper, the most popular business newspaper of South Korea, reported that 9.9% of respondents in their twenties prefer to purchase a compact car as their next vehicle whereas the percentage is only 2.6% among respondents in their forties or older. In contrast, 18.9% of respondents in their forties or older prefer to purchase a full-size car whereas the percentage is only 6.3% among respondents in their twenties (Internet Public Opinion Poll Series - Vehicles, 2000).

Figure 7

Comparison of letter case

Further, lowercase and uppercase brand names have been found to associate with femininity and masculinity, respectively (Davis & Smith, 1933; Wen & Lurie, 2018; Xu et al., 2017). Of course, car models are not marketed for one specific gender. However, industry trend reports support that, in general, females are much gravitated toward buying smaller cars while males prefer to buy more heavy-duty vehicles like SUVs (“Men Prefer Flashy or Brawny Vehicles; Women Prefer Import Brands and Smaller Vehicles According to TrueCar. com Study,” 2012). Specific to compact car preference, the abovementioned nationwide poll revealed that 11.2% of females as opposed to a mere 6.5% of males prefer a compact car as their next vehicle (Internet Public Opinion Poll Series - Vehicles, 2000). Such congruity between brand name letter case and brand age and gender further increases product attitudes and purchase intentions (Wen & Lurie, 2018).

Regarding font orientation, the logotypes did not differ between compact cars and SUVs in their use of roman and oblique fonts (see Figure 8). A further chi-square test confirmed that there is no statistically significant difference on the use of roman and oblique typefaces for logotypes depending on vehicle type (Χ² = .001, df = 1, p > .1; see Table 4). Previous studies have investigated the differences in perceptions between roman and oblique typefaces, measured in terms of Osgood’s dimensions of evaluation, potency, and activity. In those studies, oblique typefaces were consistently rated more active but less potent than roman typefaces (Doyle & Bottomley, 2009; Tannenbaum et al., 1964). As activity and potency are equally appealing attributes for automobiles despite the physical size or weight, it can be interpreted that the similar use of roman and italic typefaces in brand logotypes of both compact cars and SUVs is due to the fact that they share their marketing strategies to appeal as an active and potent product.

Figure 8

Comparison of font orientation

Regarding the number of letters, the brand names of compact cars was found to be shorter than the brand names of SUVs (see Figure 9). A t-test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the number of letters depending on vehicle type (t = -4.792, df = 52.510, p < .01; see Table 5). Comparing the mean differences, the number of letters in compact car logotypes (M = 4.96) is shorter than the number of letters in SUV logotypes (M = 7.09). In a research by Strategic Name Development, the average number of letters contained in Brandweek’s top 1,000 most advertised US brands was found to be 10.4 (Lozito, 2006). Taking this into consideration, the brand names of automobiles are generally shorter, more so for compact cars than for SUVs, and so the length significantly differs between compact cars and SUVs not only acoustically but also visually.

Figure 9

Comparisons of the numbers of letters, average weight, average width, and total width

Table 5

Independent samples t-tests on visual measures

Regarding the average weight and the average width of the logotypes, no apparent differences were found for both measures between compact cars and SUVs (see Figure 9). T-tests confirmed that there exist no statistically significant differences in both the average weight (t = -.877, df = 52, p > .1) and the average width (t = .249, df = 52, p > .1; see Table 5) of the typeface depending on vehicle type. The average weight of compact car logotypes was 2.73 and the average weight of SUV logotypes was 2.95. Considering the weight scale of a commonly used typeface, these weights are close to Black (see Table 6). The prevalent use of such heavier fonts amongst automobile logotypes is reasonable in that they connote qualities such as solidity, strength, heaviness, and masculinity compared to lighter fonts (Lewis & Walker, 1989; Lieven et al., 2015; Van Leeuwen, 2006; Walker, 2016).

Table 6

Font weights and height/stem ratios of Lucida Sans Serif typeface

The almost identical average widths between the logotypes of compact cars and of SUVs is also as expected since widths of variable-width fonts do not range much. In relation to the height being unity, the uppercase widths of commonly used typefaces are close to unity. For instance, the average capital width of Times Roman is 1 and the average capital width of Helvetica is 0.98 (Bigelow, 2019). Then it is reasonable that no significant difference is found between the widths of the logotypes of compact cars and the widths of the logotypes of SUVs. Further, considering the average widths of commonly used typefaces, the logotypes of both compact cars and SUVs are rather extremely extended. Extended typefaces, compared to their regular counterparts, have been shown to carry images of strength and masculinity (Davis & Smith, 1933). This is again in line with the target consumer group of the product category. Moreover, because the width measure accounts for the side bearings, the wide width also implies that the kerning of the logotypes of automobiles are rather loose. This can be interpreted so as to promote spaciousness of vehicles, apart from its exterior size. Although buyers of compact cars generally prefer the smaller size compared to SUVs, inner spaciousness—one that relate to comfort—is possibly a benefit pursued by any vehicle. Also, since the average widths do not differ between compact car and SUV logotypes but the numbers of letters do, it is as expected that the total width of the logotype itself is significantly longer for SUVs (M = 11.3) than for compact cars (M = 8.2) in relation to the height being unity. A t-test confirms that the logotype of SUVs is visually longer than the logotypes of compact cars (t = -1.952, df = 52, p < .1; see Table 5).

5. Discussion and conclusion

The degree of fitness between the auditory image provoked by the phonetic features in brand names and the visual image provoked by the typographic features in brand logotypes was explored amongst globally leading automobile companies in search for a pattern that could well be a hidden ingredient in their global success. The study was driven by the apparent gap in literature that has yet to bridge between the auditory and visual cues that constitute to the brand’s identity. Comparative analyses on compact cars and SUVs manufactured by leading global automobile brands revealed that their brand identity (both linguistic and visual) by and large is in line with their product attributes. Linguistic analyses revealed that the sounds of SUV brand names were longer than the sounds of compact car brand names. Moreover, those phonemes that connote a smaller image were observed more frequently among compact car brand names while those that connote a larger image were observed more frequently among SUV brand names, implying that the pure sound of the brand names agrees with specific product attributes. Visual analyses revealed that the typographic characteristics of brand logotypes also largely agree with product attributes. Lowercase logotypes—the type that deliver the images of youth and femininity—were only observed among compact cars. Also, SUV logotypes were found to be visually longer and containing more letters compared with compact car logotypes. Other visual measures were found not to significantly differ between compact cars and SUVs but were in line with the general product category. Thus, both the phonetic and the visual features of brand names and logotypes by and large agree with product attributes, considering the differences in product positioning between the two vehicle types.

Then what does it imply that the auditory and visual brand design elements coincide? When brand design elements agree in the connotative image they relay, a more positive and higher emotional engagement is induced on the part of the consumers, positively influencing memorability and perceptions of brand credibility, brand aesthetics, and brand value (Childers & Jass, 2002; Fenko et al., 2016; Klink, 2003; Salgado-Montejo et al., 2014; Van Rompay & Pruyn, 2011). Research suggest that such congruency effect is due to schema congruity, which asserts that information perceived as schema congruent yields processing fluency and leads to a comfortable feeling of familiarity (Alina & Ioan, 2013). It is uncertain that the brands examined in this study deliberately aligned their brand name’s auditory image and their logotype’s visual image. However, this finding provides at least an evidential reason to believe that delivering a consistent image through multisensory channels leads to a greater potential in corporate performance. Such hypothesis is yet to be proven exhaustively. However, further research in establishing extensive and concrete evidence in diverse regional and industrial contexts will collectively contribute toward revealing the secret to successful brand design and communication. Thus, the current study serves as the foothold to expand researching efforts to formulate how various multisensory cues affect consumers’ mutual response by demonstrating that popular leading brands do indeed align the images of their branding elements. The next step is to experiment exactly how certain perceptual effects—cognitive and emotional—are influenced when consumers are presented with either congruent or incongruent brand design elements.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Yonsei University Research Grant of 2020.

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